Algunas de ellas pueden generar impactos negativos tanto en la demanda como en la oferta de estos servicios, lo que vuelve crucial hacernos cargo tanto de los factores de vulnerabilidad a nivel residencial como los riesgos asociados a los sistemas socio-técnico-ecológicos de los territorios involucrados, considerando tanto los factores naturales como los antrópicos.
Los altos índices de pobreza en la región obligan la revisión de las barreras que la población enfrenta para acceder a los servicios energéticos e hídricos, identificando las dificultades para satisfacer tanto sus necesidades fundamentales como básicas. Pero garantizar un acceso equitativo a servicios en calidad y cantidad suficiente requiere además el monitoreo de los servicios, el análisis de sus vulnerabilidades y el reconocimiento de sus incertidumbres. Por otra parte, enfrentar el desafío de asegurar una cobertura equitativa de servicios energéticos de calidad debe ir de la mano de los esfuerzos de descarbonización de la matriz energética, mientras el desafío de asegurar la disponibilidad de agua en cantidad y calidad suficiente para el uso humano requiere conservar y recuperar el funcionamiento de los ecosistemas de la región.
En este contexto vemos en la necesidad de definir —al alero de los ODS— estándares mínimos para la satisfacción de necesidades hídricas yenergéticas, especialmente para aquellas que tienen un impacto directo sobre la salud, pero, considerando al mismo tiempo que la seguridad hídrica y energética posee realidades altamente diversas, cultural y geográficamente, por lo que los contextos territoriales son cruciales para definir los criterios de calidad y cantidad pertinentes para una población.
La definición de estos criterios debiera ser capaz de reconocer la desigualdad a partir de abordajes interseccionales, que consideren la relación con variables de género y etnia. Para esto es fundamental reconocer los múltiples usos y valores relacionados a estos servicios, promoviendo la participación de múltiples actores en el diagnóstico y en la definición de paradigmas de intervención. En este contexto, desconcentrar, descentralizar y desjerarquizar parece una recomendación critica para mejorar los servicios energéticos e hídricos en los diferentes territorios.
Al mismo tiempo es necesario construir condiciones de resiliencia territorial adecuadas para reducir el impacto de las posibles amenazas, limitando los efectos sobre la población vulnerable.
Considerando los lineamientos de política pública, parece pertinente promover la integración regional, con el objetivo de diversificar la matriz energética y las fuentes hídricas, reforzando las posibilidades de respuesta con la colaboración internacional. Aquí es fundamental lograr una mirada sistémica que permita desarrollar un abordaje multidimensional, considerando las interdependencias e identificando los múltiples nexos asociados.
Sin duda el fortalecimiento de instituciones, la integración de políticas y la coordinar de sectores es crítico para lograr combinar y complejizar las intervenciones en los servicios hídricos y energéticos, lo que además requiere asumir que las políticas públicas relacionadas también son resultados de procesos socioculturales, con limitaciones y posibilidades de transformación.
Estrategias nacionales
Debido a la dificultad que supone acceder a información actualizada sobre el estado de implementación de los múltiples programas en los que se materializan las estrategias de seguridad hídrica y energética, recomendamos realizar una revisión en profundidad a través de un estudio dedicado exclusivamente a cumplir este cometido, ya que éste permitiría conocer los diferentes esfuerzos que los gobiernos de la
región están impulsando en seguridad hídrica y energética.
A partir del análisis desplegado, es posible afirmar que, en general, las estrategias no cuentan con un marco conceptual integral y quienes lo tienen no se pliegan a definiciones estandarizadas para la región. Esto podría ser un factor clave en una de las principales asimetrías entre la política pública dedicada a la seguridad hídrica en relación a la energética, a saber, que aún no se reconoce el derecho a la energía del mismo modo que se hace con el agua y los servicios hídricos. Así mismo, la discusión se limita al acceso (no en todos los casos universal), la calidad (entendida principalmente como eficiencia) y en ocasiones la equidad a través de políticas focalizadas que buscan mitigar los problemas de acceso y calidad producto de variables socioeconómicas o de aislamiento geográfico (ruralidad).
Respecto a los lineamientos descritos en las estrategias, se concluye que se condicen solo parcialmente con las recomendaciones identificadas en la literatura científica, lo cual podría interpretarse como evidencia de una débil relación entre la generación de conocimiento y la toma de decisiones. Entre los lineamientos considerados destaca, para ambos casos (agua y energía), la importancia de informar, concientizar y motivar a los usuarios a reproducir “buenas prácticas” en la satisfacción de necesidades hídricas y energéticas, dejando de lado el fortalecimiento de las capacidades territoriales para asegurar su provisión accesible, sostenible y resiliente. También se aprecia un especial interés en implementar tecnologías que mejoren distintas dimensiones del servicio, que para el caso hídrico se asocia a la sustentabilidad y para el energético a la eficiencia.
En este contexto, y para orientar la política pública y optimizando la selección de lineamientos e instrumentos, se recomiendan tres indicaciones fundamentales:
• Realizar estudios con enfoque territorial, que identifiquen las principales brechas y riesgos que deben ser atendidas en las estrategias de seguridad hídrica y energética. Utilizando enfoques idóneos para la observación de los problemas según sea su naturaleza.
• Promover la gobernanza hídrica y energética multinivel basada en evidencia orientada a garantizar el derecho al agua y la energía.
• Incorporar un enfoque interseccional que permita incorporar consideraciones especiales para poblaciones históricamente vulneradas, esto es, la observación de factores de género, etnia y desigualdad en la gobernanza del agua y la energía.
COVID-19 y su relación con los servicios hídricos y energéticos
La pandemia por COVID-19 repercute de forma significativa en materia de gobernanza hídrica y energética. Por un lado, es importante considerar que la medida de confinamiento afecta de forma evidente la cantidad de tiempo que las personas hacen uso de sus viviendas, donde utilizan constantemente los servicios hídricos y energéticos. En este contexto, aquellos hogares con brechas en el acceso a estos servicios, sin duda encuentran mayores dificultades en enfrentar esta amenaza, considerando la importancia de la higiene personal para frenar la transmisión del virus, higiene que depende fundamentalmente del acceso a agua. Por otro lado, el aumento de horas en la vivienda se traduce en un aumento en el consumo de electricidad y otros servicios energéticos, como la calefacción, que para muchos hogares antes eran costos absorbidos por espacios laborales u educativos.
Por otro lado, el impacto de esta crisis sanitaria traerá consigo una importante crisis económica que repercutirá en toda la región latinoamericana. La suspensión temporal de trabajos, sumado al aumento del desempleo engrosará los números de pobreza en la región, agudizando las problemáticas asociadas a la equidad del acceso en materia de agua y energía. El COVID -19 cambiará la configuración socioeconómica que tenía la región, donde probablemente las brechas en el acceso a los servicios energéticos e hídricos se agudizarán. Los hogares deberán ser apoyados por la acción estatal, a partir de medidas como regulaciones de tarifas, implementación de ingresos de emergencia, bonificaciones y otro tipo de subsidios, para enfrentar los desafíos en materia de seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe.
Pese a lo anterior, la presente crisis también abre una puerta para actualizar y transformar los objetivos de las estrategias nacionales, aumentando los niveles de integración y ambición, orientando la gobernanza hídrica y energética de la región hacia los lineamientos que permitirán asegurar el acceso a agua y energía como un derecho en nuestras sociedades.
Proyecciones del estudio y limitaciones metodológicas
La crisis sanitaria, ambiental, económica y social son, por sí solas y en su conjunto, vectores de un escenario hiper complejo que requiere con urgencia ser abordado con políticas sólidas, basadas en la evidencia con respaldo de la comunidad científica y coordinada tanto vertical como horizontalmente, sin embargo, la brecha de información (que varía entre los distintos países de América Latina y el Caribe) merma significativamente las posibilidades de mejorar cualquiera de estas condiciones.
De momento, contar con una serie de escalas y herramientas no compatibles entre sí genera confusión y posibles interpretaciones erróneas del estado actual de los servicios hídricos y energéticos en América Latina y el Caribe, reduciendo artificialmente la envergadura de los desafíos. De aplicarse en forma generalizada para toda la región, los indicadores propuestos permitirían mesurar el estado actual de los servicios hídricos y energéticos, establecer una línea de base para cuantificar los avances, comparar entre países y cooperar a través del intercambio de experiencias que permitan responder y adaptarse no solo a las crisis actuales, sino que a las que vienen.
Un de los factores más importante que pone en riesgo la seguridad hídrica y energética es no contar con las herramientas analíticas que permitan comprender la interfaz entre ecosistemas y sistemas técnicos de abastecimiento. Si bien el marco analítico propuesto representa un importante avance en la comprensión los fenómenos que afectan los servicios hídricos y energéticos, el déficit de datos (por inexistencia o dificultades de acceso) representa una de las barreras más importantes para su aplicación.
Con este documento se confirma la necesidad de que los gobiernos, en conjunto con organismos internacionales, logren dar visibilidad a esta urgencia, optando por incorporar en sus estrategias de respuesta y reactivación económica nuevos levantamientos de información que consideren la aplicación de instrumentos estandarizados para la región en su conjunto, capaces de contener la diversidad sin sacrificar la compatibilidad entre países. Paralelamente, la consistencia y persistencia que permite el marco conceptual propuesto favorecerá que las investigaciones aporten al logro de metas comunes, favoreciendo la trazabilidad a los esfuerzos y promoviendo una sinergia en el abordaje de los desafíos relacionados con acceso equitativo a servicios hídricos y energéticos de calidad para Latinoamérica y el Caribe.
Administración Nacional de Acueductos y Alcantarillados (2017), Plan Nacional de agua potable y saneamiento
de El Salvador.
Aguilar-García, R., y Ortega-Guerrero, M. A. (2017), Análisis de la dinámica del agua en la zona no saturada en
un suelo sujeto a prácticas de conservación: implicaciones en la gestión de acuíferos y adaptación al
cambio climático. Revista mexicana de ciencias geológicas (34). Instituto de Geología, UNAM.
Aguilera-Klink, F., Pérez-Moriana, E., & Sánchez-Garcıa, J. (2000), The social construction of scarcity. The
case of water in Tenerife (Canary Islands). Ecological economics, 34(2), 233-245.
Aitken, D., Rivera, D., Godoy-Faúndez, A., y Holzapfel, E. (2016), Water scarcity and the impact of the mining
and agricultural sectors in Chile. Sustainability (Switzerland), 8(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/su8020128.
Aized, T., Shahid, M., Bhatti, A.A., … G. (2018), Energy security and renewable energy policy analysis of
Pakistan. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (84). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.254.
Akadiri, S. Saint, Alola, A. A., Akadiri, A. C., y Alola, U. V. (2019), Renewable energy consumption in EU-
28 countries: Policy toward pollution mitigation and economic sustainability. Energy policy (132).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.06.040.
Albrecht, T. R., Crootof, A., & Scott, C. A. (2018), The Water-Energy-Food Nexus: A systematic review of
methods for nexus assessment. Environmental Research Letters, 13(4).
Aleixo, B., Peña, J.L., Heller, L. y Rezende, S. (2019), Infrastructure is a necessary but insufficient condition to
eliminate inequalities in access to water: Research of a rural community intervention in Northeast Brazil.
Science of The Total Environment, 652(20), 1445-1455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.202.
Aleixo, B., y Rezende, S. (2015), Human right in perspective: Inequalities in access to water in a rural community
of the brazilian northeast 1.
Alola, A. A., Bekun, F. V, y Sarkodie, S. A. (2019), Dynamic impact of trade policy, economic growth, fertility
rate, renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on ecological footprint in Europe. Science of
the Total Environment, 685, 702-709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.139.
Ambikapathi, R., Rothstein, J. D., Yori, P. P., Olortegui, M. P., Lee, G., Kosek, M. N., y Caulfield, L. E. (2018),
Food purchase patterns indicative of household food access insecurity, children’s dietary diversity and
intake, and nutritional status using a newly developed and validated tool in the Peruvian Amazon.
Food Security, 10(4), 999–1011. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0815-2.
Amigo, C., Guerrero, M. J., Sannazzaro, J., y Urquiza, A. (2018), Does Energy Poverty Have a Female Face in
Chile?. Tapuya Latin American Science, Technology and Society. https://doi.org/10.1080/25729861.20
19.1608038.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…84
Andadari, R. K., Mulder, P., & Rietveld, P. (2014), Energy poverty reduction by fuel switching. Impact evaluation
of the LPG conversion program in Indonesia. Energy Policy, 66, 436-449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enpol.2013.11.021.
Anderson, W., White, V., & Finney, A. (2012), Coping with low incomes and cold homes. Energy Policy, 49, 40-52.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.002.
Aquila, G., Pamplona, E.D.O., Queiroz, A.R.D., … M.N. (2017), An overview of incentive policies for the
expansion of renewable energy generation in electricity power systems and the Brazilian experience.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (70). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.013.
Arsel, M., Hogenboom, B., y Pellegrini, L. (2016), The Extractive Industries and Society The extractive
imperative. Latin America. The Extractive Industries and Society, 3(4), 880–887. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.exis.2016.10.014.
ASHRAE (2010), Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. https://www.ashrae.org/technical-
resources/bookstore/standard-55-thermal-environmental-conditions-for-human-occupancy.
Aste, N., del Pero, C., y Leonforte, F. (2017), Active refrigeration technologies for food preservation in
humanitarian context – A review. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 22, 150–160.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2017.02.014.
Bahri, A. (2012), Integrated Urban Water Management, Global Water Partnership Technical Committee
(TEC), TEC background papers, N° 16.
Bakker, K., & Morinville, C. (2013), The governance dimensions of water security: a review. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 371(2002),
20130116–20130116.
Baltazar, J., Berchin, I. I., Garcia, J., da Silva, S., Valquiria, A., Avila, R., Silva, W., et al. (2020), A literature-
based study on the water–energy–food nexus for sustainable development. Stochastic Environmental
Research and Risk Assessment, 6.
Barría, R. M., Calvo, M., y Pino, P. (2016), Contaminación intradomiciliaria por material particulado fino
(MP2,5) en hogares de recién nacidos. Revista Chilena de Pediatria, 87(5), 343–350. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rchipe.2016.04.007.
Basu, M., Hoshino, S., & Hashimoto, S. (2015), Many issues, limited responses: Coping with water insecurity
in rural India. Water Resources and Rural Development, 5.
Berger, T., Troost, C., Wossen, T., Latynskiy, E., Tesfaye, K., & Gbegbelegbe, S. (2017), Can smallholder farmers
adapt to climate variability, and how effective are policy interventions? Agent-based simulation results
for Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 48(6), 693–706.
Berkes, F. (2007), Understanding uncertainty and reducing vulnerability: Lessons from resilience thinking.
Natural Hazards, 41(2), 283–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-006-9036-7.
Berkes, F., Colding, J., Folke, C. (2001), Navigating Social-Ecological Systems. Cambridge.
Bhatia, M., y Angelou, N. (2015), Beyond connections. Energy Access Redefined. Sustainable Energyfor All.
Bichai, F., & Smeets, P. W. M. H. (2013), Using QMRA-based regulation as a water quality management tool in
the water security challenge: Experience from The Netherlands and Australia. Water Research 47(20).
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.09.062.
Biggs, R., Schlüter, M., Biggs, D., Bohensky, E. L., BurnSilver, S., Cundill, G., … West, P. C. (2012), Toward
Principles for Enhancing the Resilience of Ecosystem Services. Annual Review of Environment and
Resources, 37(1), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-051211-123836.
Bilgen, S. (2014), Structure and environmental impact of global energy consumption. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 38, 890-902. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.004.
Binder, C. R., Mühlemeier, S., y Wyss, R. (2017), An indicator-based approach for analyzing the resilience of
transitions for energy regions. Part I: Theoretical and conceptual considerations. Energies, 10(1), 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en10010036.
Blersch, C. L., y Plessis, J. A. du. (2017), Planning for desalination in the context of the Western Cape
water supply system. Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering (59). https://doi.
org/10.17159/2309-8775/2017/v59n1a2.
Boardman, B. (1991), Fuel Poverty: from cold houses to affordable warmth. London: Belhaven Press.
Bohoslavsky, J. P., y Justo, J. B. (2011), Protección del derecho humano al agua y arbitrajes de inversión, Comisión
Económica para América Latina y el Caribe, Colección de documentos de proyectos, Santiago, Chile.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 85
Borraz, F., González Pampillón, N., & Olarreaga, M. (2013), Water Nationalization and Service Quality, Policy
Research Working Paper 6318, The World Bank Group.
Boso, A., Ariztía, T. y Fonseca, F. (2017), Usos, resistencias y aceptación de tecnologías energéticas emergentes
en el hogar. El caso de la política de recambio de estufas en Temuco, Chile. Revista Internacional de
Sociología, 75(4), 1-15. https://dx.doi.org/10.3989/ris.2017.75.4.17.04.
Bouzarovski, S., & Petrova, S. (2015), A global perspective on domestic energy deprivation: Overcoming
the energy poverty–fuel poverty binary. Energy Research & Social Science, 10, 31-40. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.06.007.
Bouzarovski, S., & Tirado Herrero, S. (2017), The energy divide: Integrating energy transitions, regional
inequalities and poverty trends in the European Union. European Urban and Regional Studies, 24(1),
69-86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969776415596449.
Bouzarovski, S., Petrova, S., y Sarlamanov, R. (2012), Energy poverty policies in the EU: A critical perspective.
Energy Policy, 49, 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.033.
Brack, W., Dulio, V., Ågerstrand, M., … R.B. (2017), Towards the review of the European Union Water
Framework management of chemical contamination in European surface water resources. Science of
the Total Environment (576). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.104.
Brack, W., Escher, B. I., Muller, E., Schmitt-Jansen, M., Schulze, T., Slobodnik, J., y Hollert, H. (2018), Towards
a holistic and solution-oriented monitoring of chemical status of European water bodies: how to
support the EU strategy for a non-toxic environment?. Environmental Sciences Europe (30). https://doi.
org/10.1186/s12302-018-0161-1.
Bridge, B. A., Adhikari, D., y Fontenla, M. (2016), Electricity, income, and quality of life. Social Science Journal,
53(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2014.12.009.
Britto, A. L., y Rezende, S. C. (2017), A política pública para os serviços urbanos de abastecimento de água
e esgotamento sanitário no Brasil: financeirização, mercantilização e perspectivas de resistência.
Cadernos Metrópole, 19(39), 557-581. https://doi.org/10.1590/2236-9996.2017-3909.
Brown, C., Neves-Silva, P., y Heller, L. (2016), The human right to water and sanitation: a new
perspective for public policies. Ciência y Saúde Coletiva, 21, 661-670. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-
81232015213.20142015.
Bulled, N. (2017), The effects of water insecurity and emotional distress on civic action for improved
water infrastructure in rural South Africa. Medical anthropology quarterly, 31(1), 133-154. Economic
Anthropology, 6(2), 208–221.
Burdescu, R., van den Berg, C., Janson, N., & Alvarado, O. (2020), A Benchmark for the Performance of State-
Owned Water Utilities in the Caribbean, Washington, USA, The World Bank Group.
Burgos, S., Ruiz, P., y Koifman, R. (2013), Changes to indoor air quality as a result of relocating families
from slums to public housing. Atmospheric Environment, 70, 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
atmosenv.2012.12.044.
Burillo, D., Chester, M. V., Pincetl, S., y Fournier, E. (2019), Electricity infrastructure vulnerabilities due to
long-term growth and extreme heat from climate change in Los Angeles County. Energy Policy,
128(December 2018), 943–953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.12.053.
Burke, M. J., y Stephens, J. C. (2017), Energy democracy: Goals and policy instruments for sociotechnical
transitions. Energy Research Y Social Science (33). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.09.024.
Butler, D., & Sherriff, G. (2017), ‘It’s normal to have damp’: Using a qualitative psychological approach to
analyse the lived experience of energy vulnerability among young adult households. Indoor and Built
Environment, 26(7), 964-979. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X17708018.
Butler, D., Ward, S., Sweetapple, C., Astaraie-Imani, M., Diao, K., Farmani, R., y Fu, G. T. (2017), Reliable,
resilient and sustainable water management: the Safe y SuRe approach. Global Challenges (1). https://
doi.org/10.1002/gch2.1010.
Cai, X. M., Wallington, K., Shafiee-Jood, M., y Marston, L. (2018), Understanding and managing the food-
energy-water nexus – opportunities for water resources research. Advances In Water Resources (111).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2017.11.014.
Calvo Cárdenas, N. (2014), La economía del cambio climático en Bolivia: Cambios en la Demanda Hídrica.
C.E. Ludeña y L. Sanchez-Aragon (eds), Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, Monografía No. 187,
Washington, DC, USA.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…86
CEER [Council of European Energy Regulators] (2018), Energy Quality of Supply Work Stream (EQS WS) CEER
Benchmarking Report 6.1 on the Continuity of Electricity and Gas Supply Data update 2015/2016.
CEPAL [Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe] (2010), Contribution of energy services to the
millennium development goal and to poverty alleviation in Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago,
Chile, ECLAC.
(2011), An assessment of the economic impact of climate change on the water sector in Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines, Puerto España, Trinidad y Tobago, ECLAC.
(2020), Mujeres y energía, (LC/MEX/TS.2020/7), Ciudad de México, México.
(2015), The economics of climate change in Latin America and the Caribbean: Paradoxes and challenges of
sustainable development. http://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/37311/S1420655_en.pdf.
Charbit, C. (2011), Governance of Public Policies in Decentralised Contexts: The Multi-Level Approach. OECD
Regional Development Working Papers, 2011(04), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1787/5kg883pkxkhc-en.
Chen, C., Noble, I., Hellmann, J., Coffee, J., Murillo, M., y Chawla, N. (2015), University of Notre Dame Global
Adaptation Index: Country Index. University of Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index Country: Country
Index Technical Report, 46.
Chen, J., Wu, H., Qian, H., y Li, X. Y. (2018), Challenges and prospects of sustainable groundwater management
in an agricultural plain along the Silk Road Economic Belt, north-west China. International Journal Of
Water Resources Development (34). https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2016.1238348.
Chester, M. V., y Allenby, B. (2019), Toward adaptive infrastructure: flexibility and agility in a non-
stationarity age. Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure, 4(4), 173–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/23
789689.2017.1416846.
Chua, K. J., Chou, S. K., Yang, W. M., & Yan, J. (2013), Achieving better energy-efficient air conditioning –
A review of technologies and strategies. Applied Energy, 104, 87-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2012.10.037.
CIDH [Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos] (2015), Acceso al agua en las américas una aproximación
al derecho humano al agua en el sistema interamericano, Informe Anual 2015, Washington, DC, USA.
Clark, M. L., Reynolds, S. J., Burch, J. B., Conway, S., Bachand, A. M., y Peel, J. L. (2010), Indoor air pollution,
cookstove quality, and housing characteristics in two Honduran communities. Environmental Research,
110(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2009.10.008.
Clavijo, J. y Venegas, J. (2016) El ciudadano expuesto: modernización energética, quemados y sociedad del
riesgo en Colombia. Universitas Humanística, 82(82), 250-277. https://doi.org/10.11144/Javeriana.
uh82.ceme.
Comunidad Andina (2010), El agua de los andes: Un recurso clave para el desarrollo e integración del desarrollo,
Lima, Perú.
Concejo Nacional de Energía. (2011), Política Energética Nacional de El Salvador 2010-2024.
Conticini, E., Frediani, B., y Caro, D. (2020), Can atmospheric pollution be considered a co-factor in extremely
high level of SARS-CoV-2 lethality in Northern Italy? Environmental Pollution, 261, 114465. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114465.
Contreras-Lisperguer, R. (2010), Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change on Energy Projects: The
“Chacabuquito” Experience: An effort to understand how climate change may impact the productivity of
existing and future energy production systems, OEA.
Cook, C., & Bakker, K. (2012), Water security: Debating an emerging paradigm. Global Environmental Change,
22(1), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.10.011.
Corzo, A., y Gamboa, N. (2018), Environmental impact of mining liabilities in water. Environment, Development
and Sustainability, 20(2), 939–961. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9899-z.
Coviello, M. & Ruchansky, B. (2017), Avances en materia de energías sostenibles en América Latina y el Caribe:
Resultados del Marco de Seguimiento Mundial, informe de 2017, Santiago, Chile, CEPAL.
Coviello, M., Gollán, J. & Pérez, M. (2012), Public-private partnerships in renewable energy in Latin America and
the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile, ECLAC.
Curtin, J., McInerney, C., Ó Gallachóir, B., Hickey, C., Deane, P., y Deeney, P. (2019), Quantifying stranding
risk for fossil fuel assets and implications for renewable energy investment: A review of the
literature. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 116(September). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2019.109402.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 87
Da Silveira Bezerra, P. B., Callegari, C. L., Ribas, A., Lucena, A. F. P., Portugal-Pereira, J., Koberle, A., … Schaeffer,
R. (2017), The power of light: Socio-economic and environmental implications of a rural electrification
program in Brazil. Environmental Research Letters, 12(9). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7bdd.
Dai, J., Wu, S., Han, G., Weinberg, J., Xie, X., Wu, X., Song, X., et al. (2018), Water-energy nexus: A review of
methods and tools for macro-assessment. Applied Energy, 210, 393–408.
Day, R., Walker, G., y Simcock, N. (2016), Conceptualising energy use and energy poverty using a capabilities
framework. Energy Policy, 93, 255-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.019.
De Jong, P., Tanajura, C. A. S., Sánchez, A. S., Dargaville, R., Kiperstok, A., y Torres, E. A. (2018),
Hydroelectric production from Brazil’s São Francisco River could cease due to climate change and
inter-annual variability. Science of the Total Environment, 634, 1540–1553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2018.03.256.
De Kraker, J. (2017), Social learning for resilience in social–ecological systems. Current Opinion in Environmental
Sustainability, 28, 100–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2017.09.002.
De Oliveira Alves Palmeira, Á. R., da Silva, V. A. T. H., Dias Júnior, F. L., Stancari, R. C. A., Nascentes, G. A. N., &
Anversa, L. (2019), Physicochemical and microbiological quality of the public water supply in 38 cities
from the midwest region of the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Water Environment Research.
De Queiroz, A. R., Faria, V. A. D., Lima, L. M. M., y Lima, J. W. M. (2019), Hydropower revenues under
the threat of climate change in Brazil. Renewable Energy, 133, 873–882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
renene.2018.10.050.
De Queiroz, A. R., Marangon Lima, L. M., Marangon Lima, J. W., da Silva, B. C., y Scianni, L. A. (2016), Climate
change impacts in the energy supply of the Brazilian hydro-dominant power system. Renewable
Energy, 99, 379–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.07.022.
De Souza Piccoli, A., Cynamon Kligerman, D., Cynamon Cohen, S., y Facchetti Assumpção, R. (2016), A
Educação Ambiental como estratégia de mobilização social para o enfrentamento da escassez de
água. Ciência y Saúde Coletiva (21). https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015213.26852015.
Dehays, J., y Schuschny, A. (2019), Pobreza energética en américa latina y el caribe. Una propuesta de indicadores
que midan el acceso a la energía con enfoque de desigualdad social y de género.
Delbeke, B., y Meyer, S. (2015), The Energy Poverty Barometer (2009-2013), 1–18. EU Energy Poverty Observatory.
https://www.kbs-frb.be/~/media/Files/Bib/Publications/2015_EnergyPovertyBarometer_EN.pdf.
DellaValle, N. (2019), People’s decisions matter: understanding and addressing energy poverty with
behavioral economics. Energy and Buildings, 204, 1-8.
Delzendeh, E., Wu, S., Lee, A., & Zhou, Y. (2017), The impact of occupants’ behaviours on building energy
analysis: A research review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 80, 1061-1071. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.264.
Dias, A. P., Calegar, D., Carvalho-Costa, F. A., Alencar, M. de F. L., Ignacio, C. F., Silva, M. E. C. da, & Moraes
Neto, A. H. A. de. (2018), Assessing the Influence of Water Management and Rainfall Seasonality on
Water Quality and Intestinal Parasitism in Rural Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 1–10.
Diuana, F. A., Viviescas, C., y Schaeffer, R. (2019), An analysis of the impacts of wind power penetration
in the power system of southern Brazil. Energy, 186(2019), 115869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2019.115869.
Dobbins, A., Fuso Nerini, F., Deane, P., & Pye, S. (2019), Strengthening the EU response to energy poverty.
Nature Energy, 4(1), 2-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0316-8.
Donoso, G., Calderón, C., y Silva, M. (2015), Informe Final Programa de Infraestructura Hidráulica de Agua
Potable Rural, 152.
Duan, W. L., Chen, Y. N., Zou, S., y Nover, D. (2019), Managing the water-climate- food nexus for sustainable
development in Turkmenistan. Journal Of Cleaner Production (220). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2019.02.040.
Duit, A., y Galaz, V. (2008), Governance and Complexity—Emerging Issues for Governance Theory. Governance,
21(3), 311–335. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0491.2008.00402.x.
Ebeling, F. (2016), Variedades de capitalismo e complementaridades institucionais: uma análise da política
petrolífera brasileira e da viabilidade do “Projeto Pré-Sal.” Cadernos EBAPE.BR (14). https://doi.
org/10.1590/1679-395117001.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…88
Eisenhauer, I. F., Hoover, C. M., Remais, J. V., Monaghan, A., Celada, M., & Carlton, E. J. (2016), Estimating the
Risk of Domestic Water Source Contamination Following Precipitation Events. The American Journal
of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94(6), 1403–1406. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-0600.
Elliott M., Foster, T., MacDonald, M.C. et al. Addressing how multiple household water sources and uses
build water resilience and support sustainable development. Clean Water 2, 6 (2019), https://doi.
org/10.1038/s41545-019-0031-4.
Embid, A. & Martín, L. (2017), El Nexo entre el agua, la energía y la alimentación en América Latina y el Caribe:
Planificación, marco normativo e identificación de interconexiones prioritarias, CEPAL, Santiago, Chile.
Emodi, N. V., Chaiechi, T., y Beg, A. B. M. R. A. (2019), The impact of climate variability and change on the
energy system: A systematic scoping review. Science of the Total Environment, 676, 545–563. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.294.
Endo, A., Tsurita, I., Burnett, K., & Orencio, P. M. (2017), A review of the current state of research on the water,
energy, and food nexus. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 11, 20–30.
Eras-Almeida, A. A., Fernández, M., Eisman, J., Martín, J. G., Caamaño, E., y Egido-Aguilera, M. A. (2019),
Lessons learned from rural electrification experiences with third generation solar home systems in
latin America: Case studies in Peru, Mexico, and Bolivia. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(24). https://
doi.org/10.3390/su11247139.
Espinosa-Cristia, J.F., Feregrino, J., y Isla, P., (2019) Emerging, and old, dilemmas for food security in
Latin America. Journal of Public Affairs 19, e1999. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.1999.
Esquivel, M., Grunwaldt, A., Paredes, J. R., y Rodríguez-Flores, E. (2016), Vulnerabilidad al cambio climático de
los sistemas de producción hidroeléctrica en Centroamérica y sus opciones de adaptación.
Fabbri, K. (2015), Building and fuel poverty, an index to measure fuel poverty: An Italian case study. Energy,
89, 244-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.073.
Fant, C., Adam Schlosser, C., y Strzepek, K. (2016), The impact of climate change on wind and solar resources
in southern Africa. Applied Energy, 161, 556–564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.042.
FAO, OIE y WHO (2020), Technical Brief on Wastewater, Sanitation, Hygiene and Wastewater Management
to Prevent Infections and Reduce the Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance. https://apps.who.int/iris/
bitstream/handle/10665/332243/9789240006416-eng.pdf?ua=1.
Farrell, N. (2017), What Factors Drive Inequalities in Carbon Tax Incidence? Decomposing Socioeconomic
Inequalities in Carbon Tax Incidence in Ireland. Ecological Economics, 142, 31-45. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.04.004.
Fellipe, I., Vieira, B., Cartaxo, F., Neto, R., Carvalho, M. N., Caldas, A. M., … Cristina, T. (2020), Water Security
Assessment of Groundwater Quality in an Anthropized Rural Area from the Atlantic Forest Biome in Brazil.
Filippín, C., Flores Larsen, S., & Ricard, F. (2018), Improvement of energy performance metrics for the retrofit
of the built environment. Adaptation to climate change and mitigation of energy poverty. Energy and
Buildings, 165, 399-415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.12.050.
Flammini, A, Puri, M., Pluschke, L. & Dubois, O. (2014), Walking the Nexus Talk: Assessing the Water-Energy-
Food Nexus in the Context of the Sustainable Energy for All Initiative, FAO, Roma, Italia.
Flochel, T. & Gooptu, S. (2017), The Energy Subsidy Reform Assessment Framework (ESRAF): GOOD PRACTICE
NOTES Toward Evidence-Based Energy Subsidy Reforms, World Bank Group.
Flores, M. A. (2018), Informe nacional de monitoreo de la eficiencia energética de honduras.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2018), An assessment of policies, institutions and
regulations for water harvesting, solar energy, and groundwater in Jordan, Roma, Italia.
Fragkou, M. C., y McEvoy, J. (2016), Trust matters: Why augmenting water supplies via desalination may not
overcome perceptual water scarcity. Desalination, 397, 1-8. https://doi:10.1016/j.desal.2016.06.007.
Frederiks, E. R., Stenner, K., & Hobman, E. V. (2015), Household energy use: Applying behavioural economics
to understand consumer decision-making and behaviour. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
41, 1385-1394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.026.
French, A. (2016), ¿Una nueva cultura de agua?: inercia institucional y gestión tecnocrática de los recursos
hídricos en el Perú. Anthropologica (34). https://doi.org/10.18800/anthropologica.201602.003.
Fuster, R., Escobar, C., Silva, K., y Aldunce, P. (2017), Estudio de Seguridad Hídrica en Chile en un contexto de, 129.
Fuster, R., Jara, P., Vidal, K., y Abellá, F. (2016), Estado del arte y desafíos en los servicios sanitarios rurales.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 89
Gago, E. J., Roldan, J., Pacheco-Torres, R., & Ordóñez, J. (2013), The city and urban heat islands: A review of
strategies to mitigate adverse effects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 25, 749-758. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.05.057.
García Ochoa, R., & Graizbord Ed, B. (2016), Privation of energy services in Mexican households: An alternative
measure of energy poverty. Energy Research & Social Science, 18, 36-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
erss.2016.04.014.
Garcia, L. A. T., Viancelli, A., Rigotto, C., Pilotto, M. R., Esteves, P. A., Kunz, A., & Barardi, C. R. M. (2012),
Surveillance of human and swine adenovirus, human norovirus and swine circovirus in water samples
in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Journal of Water and Health, 10(3), 445–452.
Garcia-Ochoa, R., y Graizbord, B. (2016), Caracterización espacial de la pobreza energética en México. Un
análisis a escala subnacional. Economía, Sociedad y Territorio, 51(51), 289–337.
Garreaud, R. D., Boisier, J. P., Rondanelli, R., Montecinos, A., Sepúlveda, H. H., y Veloso-Aguila, D. (2020),
The Central Chile Mega Drought (2010–2018): A climate dynamics perspective. International Journal of
Climatology, 40(1), 421–439. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.6219.
Garreaud, R. D., Vuille, M., Compagnucci, R., y Marengo, J. (2009), Present-day South American climate.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 281(3–4), 180–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
palaeo.2007.10.032.
Gerges, D. I., LaPlant, W. G., Hyde, J. N., Previl, H., y Forrester, J. (2016), Semi-quantitative estimation of
Escherichia coli levels in public drinking water sources in northern Haiti. Journal of Water, Sanitation
and Hygiene for Development, 6(1), 89-95. https://doi:10.2166/washdev.2016.043.
Gillard, R., Snell, C., & Bevan, M. (2017), Advancing an energy justice perspective of fuel poverty: Household
vulnerability and domestic retrofit policy in the United Kingdom. Energy Research & Social Science, 29,
53-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.05.012.
Gillingham, K., Rapson, D., y Wagner, G. (2016), The Rebound Effect and Energy Efficiency Policy. Review Of
Environmental Economics And Policy (10). https://doi.org/10.1093/reep/rev017.
Gioda, A., Tonietto, G. B., y De Leon, A. P. (2019), Exposure to the use of firewood for cooking in brazil and
its relation with the health problems of the population. Ciencia e Saude Coletiva, 24(8), 3079–3088.
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232018248.23492017.
GIZ [Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit]. (2018), Introduction to the Water-Energy-
Food Security (WEF) NEXUS. Bronn: GM: Nexus Regional Dialogue Programme (NRD).
Gómez, M. F., y Silveira, S. (2012), Delivering off-grid electricity systems in the Brazilian Amazon. Energy for
Sustainable Development, 16(2), 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.01.007.
Gómez-Hernández, D. F., Domenech, B., Moreira, J., Farrera, N., López-González, A., y Ferrer-Martí, L. (2019),
Comparative evaluation of rural electrification project plans: A case study in Mexico. Energy Policy,
129(December 2018), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.02.004.
González-Eguino, M. (2015), Energy poverty: An overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 47,
377-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.013.
Gouveia, J. P., Seixas, J., & Long, G. (2018), Mining households’ energy data to disclose fuel poverty:
Lessons for Southern Europe. Journal of Cleaner Production, 178, 534-550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2018.01.021.
Grafton, R. Q., Williams, J., Perry, C. J., Molle, F., Ringler, C., Steduto, P., … y Allen, R. G. (2018), The paradox
of irrigation efficiency. Science, 361(6404), 748-750. https://doi:10.1126/science.aat9314.
Grey, D., y Sadoff, C. W. (2007), Sink or Swim? Water security for growth and development. Water Policy, 9(6),
545–571. https://doi:10.2166/wp.2007.021.
Grizzetti, B., Lanzanova, D., Liquete, C., Reynaud, A., y Cardoso, A. C. (2016), Assessing water ecosystem
services for water resource management. Environmental Science y Policy, 61, 194-203. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.04.008.
Grogan, L. (2018), Time use impacts of rural electrification: Longitudinal evidence from Guatemala. Journal of
Development Economics, 135(September 2017), 304–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.03.005.
Groh, S. (2014), The role of energy in development processes—The energy poverty penalty: Case study
of Arequipa (Peru). Energy for Sustainable Development, 18, 83-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
esd.2013.12.002.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…90
Gu, A., Teng, F., Lv, y Z. (2016), Exploring the nexus between water saving and energy conservation: Insights
from industry sector during the 12th Five-Year Plan period in China. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews (59). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.285.
Gunderson, L. H., y Holling, C. S. (2002), Panarchy. Understanding transformations in human and natural
systems. Washington DC: Island Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315715865.
Guo, M., Song, W., & Buhain, J. (2015), Bioenergy and biofuels: History, status, and perspective. Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 42, 712-725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.013.
Gutiérrez-Ojeda C. y Escolero-Fuentes O.A. (2020) Groundwater Resources of Mexico. In: Raynal-Villasenor
J. (eds) Water Resources of Mexico. World Water Resources, vol 6. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-3-030-40686-8_2.
Haddout, S., Priya, K.L., Hoguane, A.M. y Ljubenkov, I. (2020), Water Scarcity: A Big Challenge to Slums
in Africa to Fight against COVID-19. Science y Technology Libraries. https://doi:10.1080/019426
2X.2020.1765227.
Hasan, M. M., y Wyseure, G. (2018), Impact of climate change on hydropower generation in Rio Jubones Basin,
Ecuador. Water Science and Engineering, 11(2), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wse.2018.07.002
Haslam, P. A., y Tanimoune, N. A. R. Y. (2016), The Determinants of Social Conflict in the Latin American
Mining Sector: New Evidence with Quantitative Data, 78, 401–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
worlddev.2015.10.020.
He, L.-Y., Hou, B., & Liao, H. (2018), Rural energy policy in China: Achievements, challenges and ways forward
during the 40-year rural reform. China Agricultural Economic Review, 10(2), 224-240. https://doi.
org/10.1108/CAER-10-2017-0190.
Heindl, P. (2015), Measuring Fuel Poverty: General Considerations and Application to German Household
Data. FinanzArchiv: Public Finance Analysis, 71(2), 178-215.
Hidalgo, J.P., Boelens, R., y Vos, J., (2017) De-colonizing water. Dispossession, water insecurity,and Indigenous
claims for resources, authority,and territory. Water History 9, 67–85.
Hills, J. (2011), Fuel poverty: the problem and its measurement. Annals of Physics, 184.
(2012), Getting the measure of fuel poverty: final report of the Fuel Poverty Review: Summary y
Recommendations, 19. https://doi.org/ISSN 1465-3001.
Hommes, L., y Boelens, R. (2017), Urbanizing rural waters: Rural-urban water transfers and the
reconfiguration of hydrosocial territories in Lima. Political Geography, 57, 71–80. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2016.12.002.
Hussein, H. (2019), Yarmouk, Jordan, and Disi basins: Examining the impact of the discourse of water scarcity
in Jordan on transboundary water governance. Mediterranean Politics (24). https://doi.org/10.1080/13
629395.2017.1418941.
Hussien, W.A., Memon, F. A., y Savic, D. A. (2018), A risk-based assessment of the household water-energy-
food nexus under the impact of seasonal variability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 171, 1275–1289.
Hutton, G., y Chase, C. (2016), The Knowledge Base for Achieving the Sustainable Development Goal Targets
on Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 13(6), 536. https://doi:10.3390/ijerph13060536.
IEA [International Energy Agency] (2019), Defining energy access: 2019 methodology, Paris, Francia. : https://
www.iea.org/articles/defining-energy-access-2019-methodology .
(2020), The Covid-19 Crisis and Clean Energy Progress, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/the-
covid-19-crisis-and-clean-energy-progress.
(2020), Biofuels in the time of Covid-19: Staying the course on clean transport fuels in Latin America.
Recuperado de: https://www.iea.org/commentaries/biofuels-in-the-time-of-covid-19-staying-the-
course-on-clean-transport-fuels-in-latin-america.
(2020), Global Energy Review 2020: The impacts of the Covid-19 crisis on global energy demand and CO2
emissions. Recuperado de: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-2020.
(2019), Defining energy access: 2019 methodology, Paris, Francia. Recuperado de: https://www.iea.org/
articles/defining-energy-access-2019-methodology.
(2016), Water Energy Nexus, World Energy Outlook, Paris, Francia.
Indar, D. (2019), National Energy Efficiency: Monitoring report of Trinidad and Tobago. Santiago.
Islam R, Siwar C, Bhuiyan M, Hossain A. (2012), The role of water, food security and poverty alleviation in the
context of sustainable livelihoods OIDA. International Journal of Sustainable Development, 101–106.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 91
Jacobs, K., Lebel, L., Buizer, J., Addams, L., Matson, P., McCullough, E., … Finan, T. (2016), Linking knowledge
with action in the pursuit of sustainable water-resources management. Proceedings Of The National
Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of America (113). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0813125107.
Jager, N. W., Challies, E., Kochskamper, E., Newig, J., Benson, D., Blackstock, K., … Korff, Y. von. (2016),
Transforming European Water Governance? Participation and River Basin Management under the EU
Water Framework Directive in 13 Member States. Water (8). https://doi.org/10.3390/w8040156.
Jalilov, S.-M., Keskinen, M., Varis, O., … F.A. (2016), Managing the water-energy-food nexus: Gains and
losses from new water development in Amu Darya River Basin. Journal of Hydrology (539). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.05.071.
Jamei, E., Rajagopalan, P., Seyedmahmoudian, M., & Jamei, Y. (2016), Review on the impact of urban
geometry and pedestrian level greening on outdoor thermal comfort. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 54, 1002-1017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.104.
Jenkins, K., McCauley, D., Heffron, R., Stephan, H., & Rehner, R. (2016), Energy justice: A conceptual review.
Energy Research & Social Science, 11, 174-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.10.004.
Jensen, K. E., Naik, N. N., O’Neal, C., Salmón-Mulanovich, G., Riley-Powell, A. R., Lee, G. O., … Paz-Soldan,
V. A. (2018), Small scale migration along the interoceanic highway in Madre de Dios, Peru: an
exploration of community perceptions and dynamics due to migration. BMC International Health
and Human Rights, 18(1).
Jepson, W. (2014), Measuring “no-win” waterscapes: Experience-based scales and classification approaches
to assess household water security in colonias on the US–Mexico border. Geoforum, 51, 107–120.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.10.002.
Jesse, B. J., Heinrichs, H. U., y Kuckshinrichs, W. (2019), Adapting the theory of resilience to energy systems: A
review and outlook. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13705-019-0210-7.
JMP (2019), Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2017.
Kammen, D. M., & Kirubi, C. (2008), Poverty, energy, and resource use in developing countries: Focus on Africa.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1136, 348-357. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1425.030.
Katircioglu, S. T. (2014), International tourism, energy consumption, and environmental pollution: The
case of Turkey. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 36, 180-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2014.04.058.
Kern, F., Kivimaa, P., y Martiskainen, M. (2017), Policy packaging or policy patching? The development of
complex energy efficiency policy mixes. Energy Research & Social Science (23). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
erss.2016.11.002.
Khalkhali, M., Westphal, K., y Mo, W. W. (2018), The water-energy nexus at water supply and its implications
on the integrated water and energy management. Science Of The Total Environment (636). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.408.
Kharrazi, A., Sato, M., Yarime, M., Nakayama, H., Yu, Y., y Kraines, S. (2015), Examining the resilience of
national energy systems: Measurements of diversity in production-based and consumption-based
electricity in the globalization of trade networks. Energy Policy, 87, 455–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enpol.2015.09.019.
Kimemia, D. y van Niekerk, A. (2017), Energy poverty, shack fires and childhood burns. South African Medical
Journal, 107(4), 289-291. https://doi:10.7196/SAMJ.2017.v107i4.12436.
Krishnan, R. (2016), Energy security through a framework of country risks and vulnerabilities. Energy Sources,
Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy, 11(1), 32–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567249.2011.563260.
Kruyt, B., van Vuuren, D. P., de Vries, H. J. M., y Groenenberg, H. (2009), Indicators for energy security. Energy
Policy, 37(6), 2166–2181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.02.006.
Lade, S. J., Steffen, W., de Vries, W., Carpenter, S. R., Donges, J. F., Gerten, D., … Rockström, J. (2020), Human
impacts on planetary boundaries amplified by Earth system interactions. Nature Sustainability, 3(2),
119–128. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0454-4.
Lancet. (2020), Redefining vulnerability in the era of COVID-19. Lancet 4-10 April; 395(10230): 1089. https://
doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30757-1.
Lanen, V., H.A.J., Laaha, G., Kingston, D.G., … M. (2016), Hydrology needed to manage droughts: the 2015
European case. Hydrological Processes (30). https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.10838.
Lecaros, F., Cayo, J. & Dussan, M. (2010), Central America Regional Programmatic Study for the Energy
Sector: General Issues and Options, The World Bank, Report N° 55418 – LAC.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…92
Lelieveld, J., Evans, J. S., Fnais, M., Giannadaki, D., y Pozzer, A. (2015), The contribution of outdoor air
pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale. Nature, 525(7569), 367-371.
Li, D. H. W., Yang, L., & Lam, J. C. (2012), Impact of climate change on energy use in the built environment in
different climate zones – A review. Energy, 42(1), 103-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.03.044.
Li, L., y Bergen, J. M. (2018), Green infrastructure for sustainable urban water management: Practices of five
forerunner cities. Cities (74). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.11.013.
Li, P. Y., He, S., Yang, N. N., y Xiang, G. (2018), Groundwater quality assessment for domestic and agricultural
purposes in Yan’an City, northwest China: implications to sustainable groundwater quality management
on the Loess Plateau. Environmental Earth Sciences (77). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7968-3.
Limaye, D. & Welsien, K. (2019), Mainstreaming Energy Efficiency Investments in Urban Water and
Wastewater Utilities Madrigal, M. & Lenai, R. (2014), Transmitting RenewableEnergy to the Grid: The
Case of Mexico, World Bank Group.
Liu, G., Zhang, Y, Knibbe, W.J., Feng, C., Liu, W., Medema, G. y van der Meer, W. (2017), Potential impacts of
changing supply-water quality on drinking water distribution: a review. Water Resources, 116, 135-148,
https://10.1016/j.watres.2017.03.031.
Liu, J. (2019), China’s renewable energy law and policy: A critical review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews (99). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.10.007.
Liu, J., Yang, H., Cudennec, C., Gain, A. K., Hoff, H., Lawford, R., Qi, J., et al. (2017), Challenges in operationalizing
the water–energy–food nexus. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 62(11), 1714–1720.
Liu, Y., Engel, B.A., Flanagan, D.C., … I. (2017), A review on effectiveness of best management practices in
improving hydrology and water quality: Needs and opportunities. Science of the Total Environment
(601). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.212.
Longhurst, N., & Hargreaves, T. (2019), Emotions and fuel poverty: The lived experience of social housing
tenants in the United Kingdom. Energy Research & Social Science, 56, 101207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
erss.2019.05.017.
Loorbach, D. (2010), Transition Management for Sustainable Development: A Prescriptive , Complexity-
Based Governance Framework. Governance: An International. Journal of Policy, Administration, and
Institutions, 23(1), 161–183.
Macias, A. M., y Andrade, J. (2014), Estudio de generación bajo escenarios de cambio climatico, 8. http://www1.
upme.gov.co/sites/default/files/generacion_electrica_bajo_escenarios_cambio_climatico.pdf.
Madrigal, Marcelino; Jordan, Rhonda Lenai. 2014. Transmitting renewable energy to the grid (English). Live wire
knowledge note series, N°1. Washington DC; World Bank Group. Recuperado de: http://documents.
worldbank.org/curated/en/919061468178444211/Transmitting-renewable-energy-to-the-grid.
Madriz-Vargas, R., Bruce, A., y Watt, M. (2018), The future of Community Renewable Energy for electricity
access in rural Central America. Energy Research and Social Science, 35 (February 2017), 118–131.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.10.015.
Mahlknecht, J., & González-Bravo, R. (2018), Towards measuring the Water-Energy-Food Nexus: The Case of
Latin America and the Caribbean Region. Energy Procedia, 153, 169–173.
Mahlknecht, J., González-Bravo, R., & Loge, F. J. (2020), Water-energy-food security: A Nexus perspective of
the current situation in Latin America and the Caribbean. Energy, 194, 1–17.
Mahmood, M. I., Elagib, N. A., Horn, F., y Saad, S. A. (2017), Lessons learned from Khartoum flash flood
impacts: An integrated assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 601, 1031-1045. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.260.
Maillet, A., y Rozas Bugueño, J. (2019), Hibridación de las políticas neoliberales. El caso de la reforma a la política
eléctrica en Chile (2014-2016), Gestión y política pública (28). https://doi.org/10.29265/gypp.v28i1.546.
Martínez-Austria, P. F., y Vargas-Hidalgo, A. (2016), Modelo dinámico adaptativo para la gestión del agua
en el medio urbano. Tecnología y ciencias del agua (7). Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del Agua,
Coordinación de Comunicación, Participación e Información.
Matos, C., Cunha, A., Pereira, F., Gonçalves, A., Silva, E., Pereira, S., Bentes, I., Faria, D., y Briga-Sá, A.
(2019) Characterization of water and energy consumptions at the end use level in rural and urban
environments: preliminary results of the ENERWAT Project. Urban Science 3, 8.
Max-Neef, M., Elizalde, A. y Hopenhayn, M. (1986), Human Scale Development: An Option for the Future.
Development Dialogue, número especial (CEPAUR y Fundación Dag Hammarskjold), p.12.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 93
McGrane, y S.J. (2016), Impacts of urbanisation on hydrological and water quality dynamics, and urban
water management: a review. Hydrological Sciences Journal (61). https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.
2015.1128084.
Mehta, L. (2006), Whose scarcity? Whose property? The case of water in western India. Land Use Policy,
24(4), 654-663.
MEM. (2018), Informe nacional de monitoreo de la eficiencia energética de Guatemala 2018. México.
Mercure, J.-F., Paim, M.A., Bocquillon, P., … J.E. (2019), System complexity and policy integration challenges:
The Brazilian Energy- Water-Food Nexus. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (105). https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.045.
Meyer, S., Laurence, H., Bart, D., Lucie, M., y Kevin, M. (2018), Capturing the multifaceted nature of energy
poverty: Lessons from Belgium. Energy Research and Social Science, 40(January), 273–283. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.01.017.
Meza, F. J., Vicuna, S., Gironás, J., Poblete, D., Suárez, F., & Oertel, M. (2015), Water–food–energy nexus in
Chile: the challenges due to global change in different regional contexts. Water International, 40(5–6),
839–855. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2015.1087797.
Middlemiss, L. (2017), A critical analysis of the new politics of fuel poverty in England. Critical Social Policy,
37(3), 425-443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018316674851.
Middlemiss, L., & Gillard, R. (2015), Fuel poverty from the bottom-up: Characterising household energy
vulnerability through the lived experience of the fuel poor. Energy Research & Social Science, 6, 146-
154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.02.001.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. http://www.
millenniumassessment.org/en/Synthesis.html.
Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía. (2016), Politica nacional de saneamiento en aguas residuales. https://www.
aya.go.cr/Noticias/Documents/PoliticaNacionaldeSaneamientoenAguasResidualesmarzo2017.pdf.
Ministerio de Minas y Energía. (2018), Considerações sobre o Comportamento do Consumidor.
Ministerio del Media Ambiente. (2014), Planes de Descontaminacion Atmosferica: Estrategia 2014-2018, 34.
http://portal.mma.gob.cl/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/articles-56174_Plan_Descont_Atmosferica_
2014_2018.pdf.
Ministry of Economic Growth and Job Creation. (2019), National water sector policy and implementation plan.
http://repositorio.unan.edu.ni/2986/1/5624.pdf.
Ministry of Labour Technological Developement and Environment. (2015), Final National Climate Change
Policy, Strategy and Action Plan for Suriname 2014-2021.Nguyen, T.T., Ngo, H.H., Guo, W., … H. (2019),
Implementation of a specific urban water management – Sponge City. Science of the Total Environment
(652). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.168.
Moghadam, E. S., Sadeghi, S. H. R., Zarghami, M., & Delavar, M. (2019), Water-energy-food nexus as a new
approach for watershed resources management: a review. Environmental Resources Research, 7(2), 129.
Mohammadpour, P., Mahjabin, T., Fernandez, J. & Grady, C. (2019), From national indices to regional action—
An Analysis of food, energy, water security in Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru, Environmental Science and
Policy, N° 101, pp. 291–301.
Molyneaux, L., Brown, C., Wagner, L., y Foster, J. (2016), Measuring resilience in energy systems: Insights
from a range of disciplines. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 59, 1068–1079. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.01.063.
Molyneaux, L., Wagner, L., Froome, C., y Foster, J. (2012), Resilience and electricity systems: A comparative
analysis. Energy Policy, 47, 188–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.04.057.
Montaña, E., Diaz, H., y Hurlbert, M. (2016), Development, local livelihoods, and vulnerabilities to global
environmental change in the South American Dry Andes. Regional Environmental Change, 16(8),
2215–2228.
Monyei, C. G., & Adewumi, A. O. (2017), Demand Side Management potentials for mitigating energy poverty
in South Africa. Energy Policy, 111, 298-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.09.039.
Monyei, Chukwuka G., Oyedele, L. O., Akinade, O. O., Ajayi, A. O., Ezugwu, A. E., Akpeji, K. O., Viriri, S.,
Adewumi, A. O., Akinyele, D., Babatunde, O. M., Obolo, M. O., & Onunwor, J. C. (2019), An income-
reflective scalable energy level transition system for low/middle income households. Sustainable
Cities and Society, 45, 172-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.10.042.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…94
Moore, R. (2012), Definitions of fuel poverty: Implications for policy. Energy Policy, 49, 19–26. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.057.
Moreno, L., Pozo, M., Vancraeynest, K., Bain, R., Palacios, J. C., y Jácome, F. (2020), Integrating water-quality
analysis in national household surveys: water and sanitation sector learnings of Ecuador. Clean Water,
3(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-020-0070-x.
NEA (2019), Water Poverty: A Common Measurement. NEA Discussion Paper. https://www.nea.org.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2019/09/Water-poverty-a-common-measurement-PRINT-VERSION.pdf.
Neal, M.J. (2020), COVID-19 and water resources management: reframing our priorities as a water sector.
Water International, 1–6. https://doi:10.1080/02508060.2020.1773648.
Nejat, P., Jomehzadeh, F., Taheri, M. M., Gohari, M., & Abd. Majid, M. Z. (2015), A global review of energy
consumption, CO2 emissions and policy in the residential sector (with an overview of the top ten CO2
emitting countries). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 43, 843-862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2014.11.066.
Newell, J. P., Goldstein, B., & Foster, A. (2019), A 40-year review of food-energy-water nexus literature and its
application to the urban scale. Environmental Research Letters, 14(7).
Pahl-Wostl, C. (2019), Governance of the water-energy-food security nexus: A multi-level coordination
challenge. Environmental Science and Policy, 92(January 2017), 356–367.
O’Sullivan, Kimberley Clare, Howden-Chapman, P. L., & Fougere, G. M. (2015), Fuel poverty, policy, and
equity in New Zealand: The promise of prepayment metering. Energy Research & Social Science, 7, 99-
107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.03.008.
Obermaier, M., Szklo, A., La Rovere, E. L., y Pinguelli Rosa, L. (2012), An assessment of electricity and income
distributional trends following rural electrification in poor northeast Brazil. Energy Policy, 49, 531–540.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.06.057.
OCDE (Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos) (2012), Water Governance in Latin
America and the Caribbean: A Multi-Level Approach (OECD Studies on Water, ed.). https://doi.
org/10.1787/9789264174542-en.
(2015), Principios de gobernanza del agua de la OCDE. 1–23. https://www.oecd.org/cfe/regional-policy/
OECD-Principles-Water-spanish.pdf.
Ogano, N. O., y Pretorius, L. (2017), Analysis of policy options for projects in the electricity sector in sub-
Saharan Africa: a system dynamics approach. South African Journal of Industrial Engineering (28).
https://doi.org/10.7166/28-1-1607.
Oh, T.H., Hasanuzzaman, M., Selvaraj, J., … S.C. (2018), Energy policy and alternative energy in Malaysia:
Issues and challenges for sustainable growth – An update. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
(81). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.112.
Oree, V., Hassen, S., S.Z., Fleming, y P.J. (2017), Generation expansion planning optimisation with renewable
energy integration: A review. Renewable and Sustainable. Energy Reviews (69). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.120.
Pahl-Wostl, C. (2019), Governance of the water-energy-food security nexus: A multi-level coordination
challenge. Environmental Science y Policy, 92, 356-367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.017.
Palma-Behnke, R., Jimenez-Estevez, G. A., Saez, D., Montedonico, M., Mendoza-Araya, P., Hernandez, R.,
y Poblete, C. M. (2019), Lowering Electricity Access Barriers by Means of Participative Processes
Applied to Microgrid Solutions: The Chilean Case. Proceedings of the IEEE, 107(9), 1857–1871. https://
doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2019.2922342.
Pan, X. F., Ai, B. W., Li, C. Y., Pan, X. Y., y Yan, Y. B. (2019), Dynamic relationship among environmental regulation,
technological innovation and energy efficiency based on large scale provincial panel data in China.
Technological Forecasting And Social Change (144). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2017.12.012.
Papada, L., & Kaliampakos, D. (2016), Measuring energy poverty in Greece. Energy Policy, 94, 157-165. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.04.004.
Pardo Martínez, C. I., & Alfonso P., W. H. (2018), Climate change in Colombia. International Journal of Climate
Change Strategies and Management. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijccsm-04-2017-0087.
Parraguez-Vergara, E., Contreras, B., Clavijo, N., Villegas, V.,Paucar, N., y Ther, F (2018) Does indigenous and
campesino traditional agriculture have anything to contribute to food sovereignty in Latin America?
Evidence from Chile, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Guatemala and Mexico. International Journal of
Agricultural Sustainability, 16, 4-5, 326-341, https://doi:10.1080/14735903.2018.1489361.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 95
Patel, T. (2014), “Global Energy Thirst Threatens Water Supplies, UN Says.” Bloomberg Business. Recuperado
de: http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-03-21/.
Pellicer-Sifres, V. (2018), Ampliando la comprensión de la pobreza energética desde el enfoque de capacidades:
hacia una mirada construida desde las personas afectadas. Iberoamerican Journal of Development
Studies, 7(2), 1-30. ISSN-e 2254-2035.
Peña, H. (2016), Desafíos de la seguridad hídrica en América Latina y el Caribe, Comisión Económica para
América Latina y el Caribe, Serie Recursos Naturales e Infraestructura, N° 178, Santiago, Chile.
(2016), Recursos Naturales e infraestructura. Desafíos de la seguridad hídrica en América Latina y
el Caribe. Naciones Unidas, 178, 57. https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/40074/
S1600566_es.pdf?sequence=1yisAllowed=y.
Pereira da Silva, P. H., Rios Ribeiro, M. M., y Bezerra de Miranda, L. I. (2017), Uso de cadeia causal na análise
institucional da gestão de recursos hídricos em reservatório no semiárido da Paraíba. Engenharia
Sanitaria e Ambiental (22). https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-41522017149982.
Pérez-Fargallo, A., Rubio-Bellido, C., Pulido-Arcas, J. A., & Javier Guevara-García, Fco. (2018), Fuel Poverty
Potential Risk Index in the context of climate change in Chile. Energy Policy, 113, 157-170. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.10.054.
Pérez-Fargallo, A., Rubio-Bellido, C., Pulido-Arcas, J. A., y Trebilcock, M. (2017), Development policy in social
housing allocation: Fuel poverty potential risk index. Indoor and Built Environment, 26(7), 980–998.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X17713071.
Pérez-Rincón, M., Vargas-Morales, J., y Crespo-Marín, Z. (2018), Trends in social metabolism and environmental
conflicts in four Andean countries from 1970 to 2013, 635–648. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-017-0510-9.
Petrova, S. (2018), Encountering energy precarity: Geographies of fuel poverty among young adults in the
UK. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 43(1), 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1111/tran.12196.
Phoumin, H., & Kimura, F. (2019), Cambodia’s energy poverty and its effects on social wellbeing:
Empirical evidence and policy implications. Energy Policy, 132, 283-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enpol.2019.05.032.
Piccoli, A.D.S., Kligerman, D.C., Cohen, S.C. y Assumpção, R.F. (2016), A Educação Ambiental como estratégia
de mobilização social para o enfrentamento da escassez de água. Ciência y Saúde Coletiva, 21, 797-
808. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015213.26852015.
Pires, A., Morato, J., Peixoto, H., Botero, V., Zuluaga, L., y Figueroa, A. (2017), Sustainability Assessment
of indicators for integrated water resources management. Science Of The Total Environment (578).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.217.
PNUD. (2007), Cambio climático: Riesgos, vulnerabilidad y adaptación en el Paraguay.
Pollard, S. L., Williams, D. L., Breysse, P. N., Baron, P. A., Grajeda, L. M., Gilman, R. H., … Checkley, W. (2014),
A cross-sectional study of determinants of indoor environmental exposures in households with and
without chronic exposure to biomass fuel smoke. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science
Source, 13(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-13-21.
Popp, J., Lakner, Z., Harangi-Rákos, M., & Fári, M. (2014), The effect of bioenergy expansion: Food, energy,
and environment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 32, 559-578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2014.01.056.
Poruschi, L., & Ambrey, C. L. (2018), Densification, what does it mean for fuel poverty and energy justice? An
empirical analysis. Energy Policy, 117, 208-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.03.003.
Pozo, M., Serrano, J. C., Castillo, R., y Moreno, L. (2016), Diagnóstico de los indicadores ODS de Agua,
Saneamiento e Higiene en Ecuador. ENEMDU 2016. Estudios Temáticos – INEC, 1–27.
Quispe-zuniga, M. R., Santos, F., Callo-concha, D., y Greve, K. (2019), Impact of Heavy Metals on Community
Farming Activities in the Central Peruvian Andes, 14–17.
Radovich, V. S. (2016), Petróleo y gas en el mar. Regulación ambiental en la República Argentina. Revista de la
Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas (46). https://doi.org/10.18566/rfdcp.v46n125.a02.
Rasul, G. (2016), Managing the food, water, and energy nexus for achieving the Sustainable Development
Goals in South Asia. Environmental Development (18). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2015.12.001.
Rasul, G., & Sharma, B. (2016), The nexus approach to water–energy–food security: an option for adaptation
to climate change. Climate Policy, 16(6), 682–702.
Ray, B., & Shaw, R. (2018), Defining Urban Water Insecurity: Concepts and Relevance. Urban Drought, 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8947-3_1.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…96
Raynal-Villasenor, J. (2020), Water Resources of Mexico. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-
40686-8.
RedPE [Red de Pobreza Energética] (2019a), Acceso equitativo a energía de calidad en Chile: hacia un
indicador territorializado y tridimensional de pobreza energética. Documento de trabajo n°5, Red de
Pobreza Energética.
(2019b), Pobreza energética: el acceso desigual a energía de calidad como barrera para el desarrollo en
Chile. http://redesvid.uchile.cl/pobreza-energetica/documentos-redpe/.
Rennert, W. P., Porras Blanco, R. M., y Muniz, G. B. (2015), The effects of smokeless cookstoves on peak
expiratory flow rates in rural Honduras. Journal of Public Health (United Kingdom), 37(3), 455–460.
https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdu087.
Reyes, R., Nelson, H., Navarro, F., y Retes, C. (2015), The firewood dilemma: Human health in a broader
context of well-being in Chile. Energy for Sustainable Development, 28, 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
esd.2015.07.005.
Reyes, R., Schueftan, A., Ruiz, C., y González, A. D. (2019), Controlling air pollution in a context of high energy
poverty levels in southern Chile: Clean air but colder houses? Energy Policy, 124(April 2018), 301–311.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.10.022.
Rijsberman, F. R. (2006), Water scarcity: Fact or fiction?. Agricultural Water Management, 80(1-3), 5–22.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.001.
Robinson, C., Bouzarovski, S., & Lindley, S. (2018), ‘Getting the measure of fuel poverty’: The geography of fuel
poverty indicators in England. Energy Research & Social Science, 36, 79-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
erss.2017.09.035.
Rocha-Melogno, L., Yoo, R., Broesicke, O., Kallergis, A., Garcia, J., Herbas, E., … Brown, J. (2018), Rapid
drinking water safety estimation in cities: Piloting a globally scalable method in Cochabamba, Bolivia.
Science of The Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.119.
Rockström, W. Steffen, K. Noone, Å. Persson, F. S. Chapin, E. F. Lambin, … J. A. Foley. (2009), A safe operation
space for humanity. Nature, 461(September).
Rodrigues Peres, M., Ebdon, J., Purnell, S. y Taylor, H. (2020), Potential microbial transmission pathways in
rural communities using multiple alternative water sources in semi-arid Brazil. International Journal of
Hygiene and Environmental Health, 224, 113431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.113431.
Rodríguez-Merchan, V., Ulloa-Tesser, C., & Casas-Ledón, Y. (2020), Evaluation of the Water – Energy – Land
Nexus ( WELN ) Using Exergy-Based Indicators : The Chilean Electricity System Case. Energies, 13(42).
Roelofs, C. R., y Ellenbecker, M. J. (2003), Source reduction for prevention of methylene chloride hazards:
Cases from four industrial sectors. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source, 2, 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-2-1.
Rogge, K. S., Kern, F., y Howlett, M. (2017), Conceptual and empirical advances in analysing policy mixes for
energy transitions. Energy Research Y Social Science (33). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.09.025.
Rojas, F., Peñaherrera, F., Orellana, C., Castañeda Helena, Armijos, L., Burbano, L., Morales, A., Rodrigues,
P., Real, C., Rispo, A., Valverde, O., Alonso, A., y Bianchi, F. (2019), Estrategia Del Agua 2019-2022. 72.
https://scioteca.caf.com/handle/123456789/1455.
Romero, J. C., Linares, P., y López, X. (2018), The policy implications of energy poverty indicators. Energy
Policy, 115, 98-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2017.12.054.
Rosa, L., y D’Odorico, P. (2019), The water-energy-food nexus of unconventional oil and gas extraction in the
Vaca Muerta Play, Argentina. Journal of Cleaner Production, 207, 743–750.
Rousseau, I. (2017), La nueva regulación de la gestión social de los proyectos energéticos en México.
Seguridad, sustentabilidad y gobernabilidad. Revista mexicana de ciencias políticas y sociales (62).
UNAM, Facultad de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, División de Estudios de Posgrado.
Rowles III, L. S., Alcalde, R., Bogolasky, F., Kum, S., Diaz-Arriaga, F. A., Ayres, C., … y Lawler, D. F. (2018),
Perceived versus actual water quality: Community studies in rural Oaxaca, Mexico. Science of the Total
Environment, 622, 626-634. https://doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.309.
Rübbelke, D., y Vögele, S. (2013), Short-term distributional consequences of climate change impacts on the
power sector: Who gains and who loses? Climatic Change, 116(2), 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10584-012-0498-1.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 97
Ruiz, P. A., Toro, C., Cáceres, J., López, G., Oyola, P., y Koutrakis, P. (2010), Effect of gas and kerosene
space heaters on indoor air quality: A study in homes of Santiago, Chile. Journal of the Air and Waste
Management Association, 60(1), 98–108. https://doi.org/10.3155/1047-3289.60.1.98.
Ruparathna, R., Hewage, K., & Sadiq, R. (2016), Improving the energy efficiency of the existing building
stock: A critical review of commercial and institutional buildings. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 53, 1032-1045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.084.
Sadath, A. C., & Acharya, R. H. (2017), Assessing the extent and intensity of energy poverty using
Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index: Empirical evidence from households in India. Energy Policy,
102, 540-550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.12.056.
Sahu, y B.K. (2018), Wind energy developments and policies in China: A short review. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews (81). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.183.
Salinas-Rodríguez, A., Fernández-Niño, J. A., Manrique-Espinoza, B., Moreno-Banda, G. L., Sosa-Ortiz, A. L.,
Qian, Z. (Min), y Lin, H. (2018), Exposure to ambient PM 2.5 concentrations and cognitive function
among older Mexican adults. Environment International, 117(April), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envint.2018.04.033.
Salmond, J. A., Tadaki, M., Vardoulakis, S., Arbuthnott, K., Coutts, A., Demuzere, M., Dirks, K.,Heaviside, C.,
Lim, S., Macintyre, H., McInnes, R. N. y Wheeler, B. W. (2016), Health and climate related ecosystem
services provided by street trees in the urban environment. Environmental Health, 15(1), 95-111.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-016-0103-6.
Santamouris, M. (2016), Innovating to zero the building sector in Europe: Minimising the energy consumption,
eradication of the energy poverty and mitigating the local climate change. Solar Energy, 128, 61-94.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.01.021.
Schaeffer, R., Szklo, A. S., Pereira de Lucena, A. F., Moreira Cesar Borba, B. S., Pupo Nogueira, L. P., Fleming,
F. P., Troccoli, A., Harrison, M., & Boulahya, M. S. (2012), Energy sector vulnerability to climate change:
A review. Energy, 38(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.11.056.
Schueftan, A., y Gonzalez, A. D. (2015), Proposals to enhance thermal efficiency programs and air pollution
control in south-central Chile. Energy Policy, 79, 48-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.01.008.
(2016), Mejorar la eficiencia térmica y el control de la contaminación atmosférica en ciudades con alto
consumo de leña: estudio de caso en Valdivia. Boletín BES, Bosques – Energía – Sociedad, (2)4.
Sciomer, S., Moscucci, F., Magrì, D., Badagliacca, R., Piccirillo, G., y Agostoni, P. (2020), SARS-CoV-2 spread in
Northern Italy: what about the pollution role? Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 192(6), 2–4.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-020-08317-y.
Scott, C.A., Meza, F., Varady, R., Tiessen, H, …, Montaña, E.(2013), Water Security and Adaptive Management
in the Arid Americas. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 103(2), 280-289. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1080/00045608.2013.754660.
Serrani, E., y Barrera, M. A. (2018), Efectos estructurales de la política energética en la economía argentina,
1989-2014. Sociedad y Economía. https://doi.org/10.25100/sye.v0i34.6482.
Shahsavari, A., & Akbari, M. (2018), Potential of solar energy in developing countries for reducing energy-
related emissions. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 90, 275-291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2018.03.065.
Shahzad, S. J. H., Kumar, R. R., Zakaria, M., & Hurr, M. (2017), Carbon emission, energy consumption, trade
openness and financial development in Pakistan: A revisit. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
70, 185-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.042.
Silva Herran, D., y Nakata, T. (2012), Design of decentralized energy systems for rural electrification in
developing countries considering regional disparity. Applied Energy, 91(1), 130–145. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.09.022.
Simpson, G. B., & Jewitt, G. P. W. (2019), The development of the water-energy-food nexus as a framework
for achieving resource security: A review. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 7(FEB), 1–9.
Simshauser, P. (2017), Monopoly regulation, discontinuity y stranded assets. Energy Economics, 66, 384–398.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2017.06.029.
Slough, T., Urpelainen, J., y Yang, J. (2015), Light for all? Evaluating Brazil’s rural electrification progress,
2000-2010. Energy Policy, 86, 315–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.07.001.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…98
Smidt, S. J., Haacker, E. M. K., Kendall, A. D., Deines, J. M., Pei, L. S., Cotterman, K. A., … Hyndman, D.
W. (2016), Complex water management in modern agriculture: Trends in the water-energy-food
nexus over the High Plains Aquifer. Science Of The Total Environment (566). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2016.05.127.
Snell, C., Bevan, M., & Thomson, H. (2015), Justice, fuel poverty and disabled people in England. Energy
Research & Social Science, 10, 123-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.07.012.
Sohns, A., Rodriguez, D. & Delgado, A. (2016), Thirsty Energy (II): The Importance of Water for Oil and Gas
Extraction, World Bank Group.
Sorlini, S., Biasibetti, M., Abbà, A., Collivignarelli, M. C., y Damiani, S. (2017), Water Safety Plan for drinking
water risk management: the case study of Mortara (Pavia, Italy). Revista Ambiente y Água (12). https://
doi.org/10.4136/ambi-agua.2102.
Sorrell, S. (2015), Reducing energy demand: A review of issues, challenges and approaches. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 47, 74-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.002.
Sovacool, B. K. (2015), Fuel poverty, affordability, and energy justice in England: Policy insights from the
Warm Front Program. Energy, 93, 361-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.09.016.
Sovacool, B. K., y Mukherjee, I. (2011), Conceptualizing and measuring energy security: A synthesized
approach. Energy, 36(8), 5343–5355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.06.043.
Staddon, C., Everard, M., Mytton, J., Octavianti, T., Powell, W., Quinn, N., … Mizniak, J. (2020), Water
insecurity compounds the global coronavirus crisis. Water International, 1–7. https://doi:10.1080/025
08060.2020.1769345.
Staupe-Delgado, R. (2019), The water–energy–food–environmental security nexus: moving the debate
forward. Environment, Development and Sustainability, (0123456789).
Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S. E., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E. M., … Sörlin, S. (2015),
Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science, 347(6223). https://
doi.org/10.1126/science.1259855.
Stein, C., Pahl-Wostl, C., Barron, y J. (2018), Towards a relational understanding of the water-energy-food
nexus: an analysis of embeddedness and governance in the Upper Blue Nile region of Ethiopia.
Environmental Science and Policy (90). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.01.018.
Stirling, A. (2007), A general framework for analysing diversity in science, technology and society. Journal of
the Royal Society Interface, 4(15), 707–719. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2007.0213.
Stoler, J., Jepson, W., Wutich., A. (2020), Beyond handwashing: Water insecurity undermines COVID-19
response in developing areas. Journal of Global Health: 10(1): 010355. https://doi:10.7189/jogh.10.010355.
Surroop, D., Raghoo, P., Wolf, F., Shah, K. U., & Jeetah, P. (2018), Energy access in Small Island Developing
States: Status, barriers and policy measures. Environmental Development, 27, 58-69. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envdev.2018.07.003.
Tallman, P. S. (2019), Water insecurity and mental health in the Amazon: Economic and ecological drivers of
distress. Economic Anthropology.
Terrapon-Pfaff, J., Ortiz, W., Dienst, C., & Gröne, M. C. (2018), Energising the WEF nexus to enhance
sustainable development at local level. Journal of Environmental Management, 223, 409–416.
Thomson, H., Bouzarovski, S., & Snell, C. (2017), Rethinking the measurement of energy poverty in Europe:
A critical analysis of indicators and data. Indoor and Built Environment, 26(7), 879-901. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1420326X17699260.
Thomson, H., Petticrew, M., y Douglas, M. (2003), Health Impact Assessment of Housing Improvements.
Public Health, 57(1), 11–16.
Tomei, J., Cronin, J., Arias, H. D. A., Machado, S. C., Palacios, M. F. M., Ortiz, Y. M. T., … Anandarajah, G.
(2020), Forgotten spaces: How reliability, affordability and engagement shape the outcomes of last-
mile electrification in Chocó, Colombia. Energy Research and Social Science, 59(September 2019).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2019.101302.
Torres-Dosal, A., Pérez-Maldonado, I. N., Jasso-Pineda, Y., Martínez Salinas, R. I., Alegría-Torres, J. A., y Díaz-
Barriga, F. (2008), Indoor air pollution in a Mexican indigenous community: Evaluation of risk reduction
program using biomarkers of exposure and effect. Science of the Total Environment, 390(2–3), 362–368.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.10.039.
Tsilini, V., Papantoniou, S., Kolokotsa, D.-D., & Maria, E.-A. (2015), Urban gardens as a solution to energy
poverty and urban heat island. Sustainable Cities and Society, 14, 323-333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scs.2014.08.006.
UN ESCAP [Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific] (2019), The Urban Nexus: Integrating
Resources for Sustainable Cities. https://www.unescap.org/resources/urban-nexus-integrating-resources-
sustainable-cities#:~:text=The%20Urban%20Nexus%20approach%20recognizes,energy%2C%20
food%20and%20land%20resources.
UNECE [United Nations Economic Commision for Europe] (2018), Methodology for assessing the water-
food-energy-ecosystem nexus in transboundary basins and experiences from its application: synthesis,
United Nations. www.nexus-dialogue-programme.eu/about/nexus-regional-dialogue-programme/.
United Nations Economic Commision for Europe (2018), Methodology for assessing the water-food-energy-
ecosystem nexus in transboundary basins and experiences from its application: synthesis, United Nations.
Recuperado de: www.nexus-dialogue-programme.eu/about/nexus-regional-dialogue-programme/.
Uribe, N., Corzo, G., Quintero, M., van Griensven, A., y Solomatine, D. (2018), Impact of conservation tillage
on nitrogen and phosphorus runoff losses in a potato crop system in Fuquene watershed, Colombia.
Agricultural Water Management, 209(February), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2018.07.006.
Uribe, N., Srinivasan, R., Corzo, G., Arango, D., y Solomatine, D. (2020), Spatio-temporal critical source area
patterns of runoff pollution from agricultural practices in the Colombian Andes. Ecological Engineering,
149(April), 105810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105810.
Urquiza, A., Amigo, C., Billi, M., Calvo, R., Labraña, J., Oyarzún, T., y Valencia, F. (2019), Quality as a hidden
dimension of energy poverty in middle-development countries. Literature review and case study from
Chile. Energy and Buildings, 204, 109463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109463.
Urquiza, A., Amigo, C., Billi, M., Cortés, J., y Labraña, J. (2019), Gobernanza policéntrica y problemas
ambientales en el siglo XXI : desafíos de coordinación social para la distribución de recursos hídricos
en Chile. Persona y Sociedad, XXXIII(1), 133–160.
Urquiza, A., y Billi, M. (2018), Water markets and social–ecological resilience to water stress in the context of
climate change: an analysis of the Limarí Basin, Chile. Environment, Development and Sustainability,
(0123456789). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-018-0271-3.
Valdés, Y. M., y García, V. M. V. (2018), La gestión integrada de los recursos hídricos: una necesidad de estos
tiempos. Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental.
Valdés-Pineda, R., Pizarro, R., García-Chevesich, P., Valdés, J.B., Olivares, C., Vera, M., Balocchi, F., Pérez,
F., Vallejos, C., Fuentes, R., Abarza, A. y Helwig, B., (2014), Water governance in Chile: Availability,
management and climate change. Hydrol. 519, 2538–2567.
Valek, A. M., Sušnik, J., y Grafakos, S. (2017), Quantification of the urban water-energy nexus in México
City, México, with an assessment of water-system related carbon emissions. Science of the Total
Environment, 590–591, 258–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.234.
Van der Wiel, K., Stoop, L. P., van Zuijlen, B. R. H., Blackport, R., van den Broek, M. A., y Selten, F. M. (2019),
Meteorological conditions leading to extreme low variable renewable energy production and extreme
high energy shortfall. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 111(May), 261–275. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.04.065.
Van Doremalen, N., Bushmaker, T., Morris, D. H., Holbrook, M. G., Gamble, A., Williamson, B. N., … Munster,
V. J. (2020), Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1. New England
Journal of Medicine, 382(16), 1564–1567. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2004973.
Vega, A. S., Lizama, K., y Pastén, P. A. (2018), Water Quality: Trends and Challenges. Global Issues in Water
Policy (21). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76702-4_3.
Venghaus, S., y Hake, J. F. (2018), Nexus thinking in current EU policies – The interdependencies among food, energy
and water resources. Environmental Science Y Policy (90). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.12.014
Vergara, A., Bravo, D. R., de Undurraga, G. S., & Ortega, E. C. (2017), The water-energy nexus in Chile: A
description of the regulatory framework for hydroelectricity. Journal of Energy and Natural Resources
Law, 35(4), 463–483.
Viceministerio de Agua y Saneamiento Básico. (2018), Plan Director de Agua y Saneamiento Básico. http://
repositorio.unan.edu.ni/2986/1/5624.pdf.
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 99
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe…100
Viviescas, C., Lima, L., Diuana, F. A., Vasquez, E., Ludovique, C., Silva, G. N., … Paredes, J. R. (2019), Contribution
of Variable Renewable Energy to increase energy security in Latin America: Complementarity and
climate change impacts on wind and solar resources. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
113(June). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.039.
Voß, J. P., Smith, A., y Grin, J. (2009), Designing long-term policy: Rethinking transition management. Policy
Sciences, 42(4), 275–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-009-9103-5.
Wa’el, H., Memon, F. A., y Savic, D. A. (2018), A risk-based assessment of the household water-energy-food
nexus under the impact of seasonal variability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 171, 1275–1289.
Wakeel, M., Chen, B., Hayat, T., Alsaedi, A., & Ahmad, B. (2016), Energy consumption for water use
cycles in different countries: A review. Applied Energy, 178, 868-885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2016.06.114.
Walker, B., Gunderson, L. H., Kinzig, A., Folke, C., Carpenter, S., y Schultz, L. (2006), A Handful of Heuristics
and Some Propositions for Understanding Resilience. Ecology and Society, 11(1), 13.
Wang, Q., Wu, S., Zeng, Y., & Wu, B. (2016), Exploring the relationship between urbanization, energy
consumption, and CO2 emissions in different provinces of China. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 54, 1563-1579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.090.
Weitz, N., Strambo, C., Kemp-Benedict, E., y Nilsson, M. (2017), Closing the governance gaps in the water-
energy-food nexus: Insights from integrative governance. Global Environmental Change-Human And
Policy Dimensions (45). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.06.006.
White, L. V., & Sintov, N. D. (2020), Health and financial impacts of demand-side response measures differ
across sociodemographic groups. Nature Energy, 5(1), 50-60. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-019-0507-y.
WHO (World Health Organization) (2003), La cantidad de agua domiciliaria, el nivel del servicio y la salud.
https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/wsh0302/es/.
(2017), Progresos en materia de agua potable, saneamiento e higiene Informe de actualización de JMP 2017
y línea de base de los ODS. https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2017/es/.
(2018) Drinking-water. World Health Organization fact sheets. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/
fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water.
(2020), Environmental cleaning and disinfection in non-health-care settings in the context of COVID-19.
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/332097 .
(2020), Water, sanitation, hygiene, and waste management for the COVID-19 virus, Interim guidance:
https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331846/WHO-2019-nCoV-IPC_WASH-2020.3-eng.pdf.
Wichelns, D. (2017), The water-energy-food nexus: Is the increasing attention warranted, from either
a research or policy perspective? Environmental Science & Policy (69). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envsci.2016.12.018.
Williams, J., Bouzarovski, S., y Swyngedouw, E. (2019) The urban resource nexus: On the politics of relationality,
water–energy infrastructure and the fallacy of integration. EPC: Politics and Space, 37(4) 652–669.
Williams, P. y Murray, W. (2019), Behind the ‘Miracle’: Non-Traditional Agro-Exports andWater Stress in
Marginalised Areasof Ica, Peru. Bulletin of Latin American Research, 38, No. 5, pp. 591–606, 2019.
Wood, E.A., Douglas H., Fiore A.J., Nappy M.K., Bernier R., Chapman K.S. (2019) Perceived water insecurity
among adults from urban and peri-urban Haiti: A qualitative study. PLoS ONE 14(4): e0214790. https://
doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0214790.
World Bank Group (2013), Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources Management: Adaptation Challenges
and Opportunities in Northeast Brazil, Thecnical report 79528, Washington, DC, USA.
(2015), BEYOND CONNECTIONS: Energy Access Redefined, Technical report 008/15, Washington, DC, USA.
World Health Organization (2020), Water, sanitation, hygiene, and waste management for the COVID-19
virus, Interim guidance. Recuperado de: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331846/
WHO-2019-nCoV-IPC_WASH-2020.3-eng.pdf.
Wu, X., Nethery, R. C., Sabath, M. B., Braun, D., y Dominici, F. (2020), Exposure to air pollution and COVID-19
mortality in the United States: A nationwide cross-sectional study. In press. https://doi.org/https://doi.
org/10.1101/2020.04.05.20054502.
Wutich, A., & Ragsdale, K. (2008), Water insecurity and emotional distress: Coping with supply, access, and
seasonal variability of water in a Bolivian squatter settlement. Social Science & Medicine, 67(12).
CEPAL Seguridad hídrica y energética en América Latina y el Caribe… 101
Wyss, R., Mühlemeier, S., y Binder, C. R. (2018), An indicator-based approach for analysing the resilience
of transitions for energy regions. part II: Empirical application to the case of weiz-gleisdorf, Austria.
Energies, 11(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/en11092263.
Yang, L., Yan, H., & Lam, J. C. (2014), Thermal comfort and building energy consumption implications – A
review. Applied Energy, 115, 164-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.10.062.
You, Y., & Kim, S. (2019), Who lives in and owns cold homes? A case study of fuel poverty in Seoul, South
Korea. Energy Research & Social Science, 47, 202-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.007.
Zame, K.K., Brehm, C.A., Nitica, A.T., … G.D. (2018), Smart grid and energy storage: Policy recommendations.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (82). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.011.
Zegarra, E. (2018), La gestión del agua desde el punto de vista del Nexo entre el agua, la energía y la alimentación
en el Perú: estudio de caso del valle de Ica, Naciones Unidas LC/TS.2018/80, Santiago, Chile.
Zeitoun, M., Lankford, B., Kruege, T., Forsyth, T., Carter, R., Hoekstra, A. Y., … Matthews, N. (2016),
Reductionist and integrative research approaches to complex water security policy challenges.
Global Environmental Change – Human and Policy Dimensions, 39, 143-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gloenvcha.2016.04.010.
Zeitoun, M., Lankford, B., Kruege, T., Forsyth, T., Carter, R., Hoekstra, A. Y., … Matthews, N. (2016),
Reductionist and integrative research approaches to complex water security policy challenges.
In Global Environmental Change-Human And Policy Dimensions (39). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gloenvcha.2016.04.010.
Zhang, C., Chen, X., Li, Y., Ding, W., & Fu, G. (2018), Water-energy-food nexus: Concepts, questions and
methodologies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 195, 625–639.
Zhang, D., Xu, Z., Li, C., Yang, R., Shahidehpour, M., Wu, Q., y Yan, M. (2019), Economic and sustainability
promises of wind energy considering the impacts of climate change and vulnerabilities to extreme
conditions. Electricity Journal, 32(6), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2019.05.013.
Zhang, X., Li, H.-Y., Deng, Z.D., … L.R. (2018), Impacts of climate change, policy and Water-Energy-Food nexus
on hydropower development. Renewable Energy (116). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.10.030.
Zhou, Y. C., Li, H. P., Wang, K., y Bi, J. (2016), China’s energy-water nexus: Spillover effects of energy and water
policy. Global Environmental Change-Human And Policy Dimensions (40). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gloenvcha.2016.07.003.
Zölch, T., Maderspacher, J., Wamsler, C., y Pauleit, S. (2016), Using green infrastructure for urban climate-
proofing: An evaluation of heat mitigation measures at the micro-scale. Urban Forestry y Urban
Greening, 20, 305-316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.09.011.